Nandan Dutta

Discuss the Mauryan administration. Did Asoka bring about any major changes?

Examine the Mauryan administration under Chandragupta Maurya. Did Asoka bring about any major changes?

Mauryan administration

Sources of information: We get information about the Mauryan administration from Megasthenes's account, Kautilya's Arthashastra, Ashoka's inscriptions, etc.

King: Possessor of supreme power: -

The Mauryan kings did not believe in the power given by God. The king was the supreme executive, chief judge, chief commander and lawmaker at the same time. Only the king had the power to make laws. According to his wishes, high-ranking royal officials such as ministers, amatyas, generals, etc. were appointed and dismissed. The king, who had supreme military power, used to exert his utmost influence in matters related to war. Sometimes the king himself was present on the battlefield. According to the Arthashastra, the Mauryan kings had sovereign power.

Ministers and Council of Ministers:-

Ministers can be compared to the ''Mahapatras'' of Ashoka's era. Ministers advised the king on all matters of the state. According to the Arthashastra, the annual salary of the ministers was 48000 rupees. Dr. R. C. Majumdar has called the Minister and the Council of Ministers as the Executive Council and the Legislative Council respectively.

The Council of Ministers was called to discuss serious problems. The Council of Ministers played an important role in the appointment of high-ranking royal officials like the Governor, the Vice-Governor, the Chief Justice, the Naval Commander, etc.

There were also Chief Secretaries or Amatyas. They were associated with the administration and judiciary. Also, the ''Adhyaks'' or magistrates were associated with the administration. There are 32 such chiefs mentioned in the Arthashastra.

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Military Organization:-

According to the Arthashastra, the military department of Chandragupta Maurya was vested in a council of 30 members, which was divided into 6 branches of 5 members each. These 6 branches handled the duties of a total of 6 departments. These 6 departments were - 1. Infantry, 2. Cavalry, 3. Chariots, 4. Elephants, 5. Logistics and Vehicles and 6. Navy. The commanders of the navy were called ''Nabadhyaksha''. According to this, the navy of the Mauryan emperors was helpful in establishing relations with foreign countries like Egypt, Syria, Epirus etc.

According to the Arthashastra, apart from bow and arrow, spear, axe, sword, there were two distinct weapons called ''Static weapons'' and ''Moving weapons''.

Municipal administration:-

From the account of Megasthenes, it is known that the municipal administration of the capital was vested in a council consisting of 30 members. The council was divided into 6 departments of 5 members each. For example - 1. The first department supervised the industrial work, 2. The second department supervised the foreigners, 3. The third department kept records of births and deaths, 4. The fourth department controlled trade and commerce, 5. The fifth department supervised the sale of manufactured goods, 6. The sixth department collected 1/10th of the tax on the goods sold.

Basham has commented on the municipal administration of the city -

‘’ Conditions in the larger Mauryan cities approximated those of a modern police state.’’

Revenue system:-

The main source of income of the government was land revenue. 1/6th of the crops of the land and 1/8th to 1/4th of the produce was collected as ‘’sacrifice’’ tax. In addition, taxes like ''bhag'', ''hiranya'' etc. were prevalent. Revenues like 1/10th of the sold goods, birth-death tax, water tax etc. were collected.

Although the king owned all the land of the state, private ownership was also recognized. Both personal cultivation by hiring laborers were prevalent. When the agrarian economy started to expand gradually, the importance of regular land survey was felt and efficient revenue collection was considered one of the duties of the state. At that time, there was no such thing as ''middleman'' between the king and the farmer.

Regarding the importance of the Mauryan revenue system, R.S. Sharma says, ‘’The Maurya period constitutes a landmark in the system of taxation in ancient India.’’

Judicial system:-

The supreme judge of the state, the king, used to perform judicial functions with the help of knowledgeable and experienced ministers and judges. There are various judicial courts mentioned in the Arthashastra. For example - 1. Dharmasthiya, 2. Punishment of thorns, 3. Local, 4. Dronamakhu, etc. According to Arthashastra, religion, character, conduct, royal regulations, etc. were considered as laws. The penal code was very strict. In Arthashastra, there are two classes called ''Samastha'' and ''Sanchara'' and from Strabo's work, there is a mention of a class of spies called ''Paridasaka''.

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Provincial Administration:-

The Mauryan Empire had 5 provinces. Namely - 1. East, 2. Uttarapath, 3. Avanti, 4. South and 5. Kalinga. Their capitals were Pataliputra, Taxila, Ujjain, Subarnagiri and Tosali respectively. The emperor himself ruled the East from the capital. The other provinces were under the control of the ''Kumara'' and ''Mahamatara'' titles. The provinces were divided into several districts. The administration of these districts was under the control of the officials called ''Samaharatri''. The administration of 1/4 of the districts was under the control of the locals. The administration of the villages was under the control of the ''Gopa'' and ''Gramika''. The ''Gramika'' were not appointed by the state, they were appointed by the villagers.

There is also a mention of royal officials called ''Antapala'' and ''Durgpala'' in the provinces. They were engaged in the work of protecting the borders and forts.

Ashoka's system of government: Changes in the system of government:-

Ashoka made some changes to improve the basic structure of the system of government introduced by Chandragupta Maurya while keeping it unchanged. Ashoka made the following changes before and after the Kalinga War. The sole purpose of his system of government was public welfare. Therefore, he declared,

‘’All men are children, and just as I desire for my children that they may obtain every kind of welfare and happiness both in this and the next world, so I desire for all men.’’

-- Rock Edict VI.

The changes made by Emperor Ashoka are -

1. New classes of royal officials - Ashoka's edicts mention four new classes of royal officials. Namely - Rajuka, Yuta, Mahamatara and Purusha.

2. Dharmamahamata - Dharmamahamata preached religion and morality. They were also engaged in judicial matters.

3. Urban governance - According to Arthashastra, during the reign of Ashoka, in the case of large cities like Tosali, the responsibility of municipal governance was entrusted to the royal officials.

4. Reduction of the severity of the penal code - Ashoka reduced the severity of the existing penal code to a great extent by introducing the principles of "equality of punishment" and "equality of use".

5. Prativedaka - In order to keep abreast of the condition of the subjects and the performance of the responsibilities of the royal officials, Ashoka appointed a new class of royal officials called "prativedaka".

Finally, it can be said that, while keeping the basic structure of the system of governance introduced by Chandragupta Maurya unchanged, Ashoka reformed the system of governance according to his own ideals. Along with the constitutional provisions, he combined public welfare policies. Therefore, Dr. R.C. Majumdar has commented - ''Ashoka's place is the highest among the rulers of the world.''

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Discuss Ashoka's ''Dhamma''.

Was his ''Dhamma'' related to Buddhism? Give reasons for your answer.

What steps did Ashoka take to spread religion?

Ashoka's ''Dhamma'' :-

It is known from the book ''Rajatarangini'' written by Kalhana that Ashoka was a worshipper of Shiva in his early life. But the terrible outcome of the Kalinga War created deep regret in his heart and he adopted Buddhism from a Buddhist monk named Upagupta. But according to Romila Thapar, (a) the emergence of urban civilization in the Mauryan era created administrative complications, (b) the merchant community became eager to gain social recognition and ( c ) Buddhism created social awareness which created a new situation in front of the state. In this situation, Romila Thapar believes that Ashoka adopted Buddhism to preserve the central structure of the state and to achieve harmony among different ethnic groups.

Minor Rock Edict 1 mentions that after being initiated into Buddhism, Ashoka traveled to pilgrimage sites such as Kapilavastu, Lumbini, Kushinagar, Buddha Gaya, etc. To spread the message of Buddha across the country, he arranged for missionaries to be sent to Syria, Egypt, Epirus, Sinhala, etc. Ashoka was also careful to maintain close relations with the Buddhist Sangha. He called the third Buddhist Conference in Pataliputra. As a result, unity was re-established among the Buddhist communities.

The essence of religious policy of Ashoka: -

Although Ashoka was actually a Buddhist, the religion he preached was not Buddhism. The religion preached by Ashoka was more liberal and humane than Buddhism. The aim of his religion was to instill a sense of social responsibility in the minds of the people. In the words of Romila Thapar, ‘’It was a plea for the recognition of the dignity of man and for a humanistic spirit in the activities of society’’.

( A History of India - vol 1, Page 86 )

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In the context of explaining his religious policy in the second pillar inscription, Ashoka says that religion is – the scarcity of sins, the abundance of benevolence, kindness, truth and cleanliness. Tolerance of other religions glorified Ashoka’s religious policy. In fact, Ashoka’s religion was a liberal, benevolent and philanthropic religion. He declared -

“ All men are children and just as I desire for my children that they may obtain every kind of welfare and happiness both in this and the next world; so do I desire for all men.’’

( Rock Edict VI )

Historical statement on whether Ashoka’s religion was Buddhism or not:-

From Minor Rock Edict 1 it is known that Ashoka adopted Buddhism and lived like a householder. In the ‘’ Bhavaru Inscription ’’ it is known about Ashoka’s deep respect for Buddhism. The influence of Buddhism is clearly observed in Ashoka’s policies in the form of carving the words of Buddha on stupas, pillars, mountain peaks; maintaining close relations with the Buddhist Sangha; calling for the Third Buddhist Conference -- etc.

On the other hand, Fleet believes that Ashoka’s religion was a reflection of the royal religion. Welfare of people was his desired goal among political and moral disciplines. According to Ridge Davids, Ashoka's religion is not a specific religion but a principle of duty and action. According to Panikar, Ashoka's religion and Hinduism are identical.

Despite all these arguments, it can be said that the religion that Ashoka preached was not exactly Buddhism. It had no place for performing specific religious rituals and he did not give any instructions to be associated with the Buddhist Sangha. In fact, Ashoka's religion was humanistic. Its aim was to awaken a sense of social responsibility among people. In the words of Romila Thapar - It was a plea for the recognition of the dignity of man and for a humanistic spirit in the activities of society.

( A History of India - vol 1, Page 86 )

Ashoka's steps for preaching religion:-

As a king, Ashoka followed a new ideology of royal duty. This ideal of his regarding royal duty set an example in the history of the world. He declared -

“ All men are children and just as I desire for my children that they may obtain every kind of welfare and happiness both in this and the next world; so do I desire for all men .’’

( Rock Edict VI )

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Ashoka introduced Dharma Yatra instead of Vihara Yatra. He tried to make the people religious by visiting Buddhist pilgrimage sites, calling for religious assemblies, and preaching the Buddha’s message. To instill religious sentiment in the minds of the people, he arranged for the basic principles of religion to be engraved on mountain slopes and on rocks by the roadsides. To arouse people’s interest in religion, he appointed royal officials with the titles of ‘‘ Rajuka ’’, ‘‘ Yuta ’’, ‘‘ Mahamatra ’’ and arranged for three-yearly and five-yearly tours everywhere. So that the people followed the path of righteousness and were not oppressed by the royal officials, he appointed ‘‘ Dharma Mahamatra ’’.

To maintain the purity of Buddhism and the unity of the Buddhist community, he convened the Third Buddhist Conference in Pataliputra. Moggaliputta presided over this meeting. The decision of this meeting is engraved in the Sarnath Pillar inscription. According to the decision of the Third Buddhist Conference, he sent missionaries to Kashmir and Gandhara, Nepal, Maharashtra, Mysore, Varanasi, the Pandyas of the Deccan, Satyaputras, Keralaputras - etc.

Evangelization in foreign countries: -

The Buddhist scripture called ''Mahavamsa'' mentions that Ashoka sent his envoys to different parts of the Tamil kingdom. As envoys to Sinhala, Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamittra. He sent missionaries with the title of ''Maharakshit'' to Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, Epirus - etc. It is known from Buddhist literature that Ashoka established hospitals for both humans and animals in Greek countries. Therefore, these philanthropic and humanitarian activities of Ashoka had a considerable impact on the sensitive minds of the Greeks. It is known from the work of ''Sylvan Levi'' that many Greeks accepted Buddhism within a short time after Ashoka's death. Ashoka claims in his thirteenth stone inscription that his envoys were welcomed by the courts of Greek-ruled Egypt, Syria, Cyrene and Epirus. Therefore, there is no doubt that this was the result of Ashoka's missionary work. However, it cannot be said with certainty that Ashoka's missionaries were successful in spreading Buddhism in Africa and Greek countries.

According to historian Sanders, Ashoka's missionaries were able to spread cultural influence among the superstitious inhabitants of Asia, Europe and Africa. Ashoka also established charitable institutions in several foreign countries.

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Place of Ashoka in Indian History and his Contributions.

Ashoka's place in world history.

Ashoka's name is shining in glory in the pages of world history. Various historians have compared him with Constantine, Marcus Aurelius, Alexander, Alfred the Great, Julius Caesar, Charlemagne, Akbar, Napoleon - and other notable influential great men; but in reality, their glory pales in comparison to Ashoka.

According to Vincent Smith, among all the men who have ever sat on the throne in all countries, 'the beloved and beloved of the gods' King Ashoka stands like the brightest star among them. His reign was a memorable break in the 'oppressed history of man'.

Paul Malone Orr says that he was not only the greatest human leader of India - he was one of the great philosophical leaders of the world.

Victory in religion instead of war: -

There is no doubt that Ashoka was a skilled warrior. Within a short time of ascending to the throne, he defeated a powerful kingdom like Kalinga, an ally of the Chola, Pandya and other kingdoms, and ensured the security of the Maurya Empire. Accepting the religion of the time and obsessed with military victory, he could easily have earned a lasting reputation as a victorious leader by sending military expeditions to South India - and even outside India.

Emperor Ashoka did not proceed on that path, but after winning the first war of his life, he forever abandoned the policy of war and dedicated himself to spreading the ideologies of peace, friendship and universal brotherhood. We do not know of any human leader like Ashoka in the pages of the entire world history. Ashoka the conqueror of the world became Ashoka the conqueror of religion and brought about a new consciousness in the history of monarchy in the whole world. During his reign, a new era began in the internal and foreign policy of Magadha.

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New doctrine:-

Emperor Ashoka was the first in world history to present a new type of Doctrine or a novel ideal of royal duty. He did not consider the kingship as a means of enjoyment, luxury or self-fulfillment. For him, the kingship was an opportunity for public welfare and humanitarianism. He never considered the subjects as a revenue-generating instrument or an element of exploitation. By declaring the subjects as his children and devoting the state machinery to the welfare of the subjects, he presented a new ideal of public welfare. In this way, he presented the ideal of a Welfare State or a state oriented towards public welfare.

Professor D.D. Kosambi's opinion: -

He declared that, "Sab Munishe Puja Mama" - that is, all people are my children and their welfare is his life's vow. The main goal of Ashoka's royal philosophy was to make his subjects happy in this world and the next. According to Ashoka, by fulfilling this duty, he wanted to repay his debt to life. According to Professor Kosambi, the seeds of Contract Theory are hidden in this royal duty. According to this contract theory, the king got his throne on the condition of the welfare of his subjects.

A ruler who loved his subjects: -

Inspired by the great ideal of fatherhood, he built roads, planted shade trees on both sides of the road, dug wells, built taverns and established hospitals for the welfare of his subjects. He not only worked for the worldly welfare of people - he tried to fulfill his duty as a true father. He entrusted the responsibility of the welfare of the subjects to the royal officials like Rajuka, Yuta, Mahamatara, Dhamma Mahamatras. For the welfare of the women, he appointed 'Stri Adhyaksha Mahamatara'.

Ideals of Peace, Friendship and Love: -

His philanthropy was not limited to his own kingdom - it was also extended to other independent kingdoms in the outside world. Not only humans - he was the first human being in the pages of world history who was committed to the treatment and welfare of animals and birds. To limit the amount of animal slaughter, he introduced several rules, gave up meat eating himself, established animal hospitals in various places and also planted medicinal trees that were beneficial to humans and animals. A true philanthropist and a wise king, Ashoka introduced a new type of foreign policy based on peace, friendship and love. He formed alliances with various countries in India and outside India.

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Nature of Buddhism propagated by Ashoka: -

He transformed Buddhism, which was limited to a small region of India, into a world religion. As a result of his tireless efforts, the ideals of love, peace and harmony of the Lord Tathagata spread in the vast regions of Asia, Europe and Africa. Ashoka, a follower of Buddhism, was truly tolerant of other religions and the Buddhism he propagated was liberal and universal in the right sense. He gave place to humanism above religious narrow-mindedness. He used to say, "It is inappropriate to consider one's own religion as superior and another religion as inferior." Brahmins, ascetics, Jains, and others - all were equal to him.

Cultural development and liberality: -

His contribution to Indian language, literature, architecture and sculpture is also unparalleled. As a result of his preaching, the Pali language became the pan-Indian language and books were written in this language. During his reign, Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts were prevalent throughout India. In this way, he strengthened the ideal of pan-Indian unity through language and script. During his reign, numerous stupas, viharas, and chaityas were built. This also brought about a change in Indian art.

According to the historian Smith, Ashoka was the first religious leader of mankind. According to H.G. Wells, Ashoka is the only bright star among thousands of human leaders on the pages of history.

According to Dr. R.C. Majumder, Ashoka is unparalleled in the history of the world and Ashoka's emergence has glorified India.

Dr. Radhakumud Mukherjee says that in the history of monarchies of the whole world, no one can be compared with Ashoka as a person and a ruler.

Ashoka was the first emperor of India who politically united the whole of India. He spread one ideology and one language throughout the country. This was his greatest gift for building a country. However, according to some historians, Ashoka's non-violent policy made the country weak, which was one of the reasons for the fall of the Mauryan Empire later. However, this does not diminish Ashoka's greatness in any way. Because, an all-round talented emperor like Ashoka has not been seen in the entire world history. His ideal of kingship earned the respect of the people of the world. Therefore, Ashoka occupies a prominent place in the history of world civilization. He was a great idealistic human leader.

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The cultural excellence of the post-Mauryan era.

Cultural excellence of the post-Mauryan era:-

European historians say that after the fall of the Mauryan Empire, foreign nations like Greeks, Kushanas etc. ruled North India for about two centuries. But this assumption is not true. Rather, it can be said that many of the Greeks and Kushanas adopted Indian customs and were initiated into Indian religion. The same can be said about the Shakas and Pallavas. The cultural excellence of the post-Mauryan era glorified the history of Indian culture.

A great cultural integration due to the arrival of various foreign nations:-

During the post-Mauryan era, various foreign nations entered India and created a wonderful integration in the Indian cultural field. In addition to the Greeks, Shakas, Pallavas, and Kushans, India also had commercial and cultural contacts with Rome and China during this period. Rome's trade and commerce had an impact on the economy of South India. But in North India, Rome and Greece had an influence on art. As a result of this contact, there was an evolution in crafts and Buddhism in North India. The Greeks entered Indian society through Buddhism. The Greeks also adopted Indian languages.

As a result of this long-term contact, detailed descriptions of India are also mentioned in European books. For example, Strabo's 'Geography', Pliny's 'Natural History', Periplus's 'Erythraia', etc. In this era, religion, philosophy, literature, and art - everything shows signs of harmony.

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Literary excellence of the post-Mauryan era: -

A wonderful development can be observed in the field of literature in the post-Mauryan era. It was during this period that sages like Nagarjuna, Ashvaghosha, Patanjali, Charaka, Manu, Yajnavalkya, Kalidasa emerged. It was during this period that the greatest Pali text ''Milindapanha'' was written. Many Buddhist writers emerged during this period. One of them was Ashwaghosha. He was a contemporary of Kanishka. The literature by Ashwaghosha - Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi, Sutralangka - etc. are particularly noteworthy.

Nagarjuna also composed the first Mahayana sutra, ''Shata Sahasrika Prajna Paramita''. The book ''Madhyamika Sutra'' was also written by him. On the other hand, books like ''Malavikagnimitram'' written by Kalidasa, ''Charaka Samhita'' written by Charaka, ''Manu Samhita'' written by Manu, ''Yajnavalkya Smriti'' written by Yajnavalkya - have enriched the Indian knowledge base for eternity.

Excellence in art and craft: -

The excellence that Indian art achieved during the Mauryan era continued in the later era as well and in many cases it achieved greater excellence. After the fall of the Mauryan era, innumerable cave temples and cave dwellings were built in different parts of India within four to five hundred years. Architecture and sculpture developed in the post-Mauryan era centered on Buddhism. The religious architecture of this era is the Buddhist stupa and Buddhist cave temple. There was a railing or fence around the stupa. The oldest of these railing is the railing of the Bharut Stupa. It was probably built in the second century BC.

It was during this period that the Sanchi Stupa was renovated and expanded. The cave temples of western Deccan are the finest examples of the art of this period. The entrances of all these temples and the chambers within them still inspire wonder. The large caves of the post-Mauryan period, such as Bhaja, Chedsha, Kondan, Junnar, Nasik, Ajanta, Ellora, Udayagiri, etc., bear witness to extraordinary artistic skill and taste. Moreover, the entrances of various stupas are also a fine example of advanced artistic practice. For example, the elaborate entrance of the Sanchi Stupa.

Mathura Art:-

Sculpture developed as a part of architecture in the post-Mauryan period. Initially, sculptors were more skilled in carving designs on wood and ivory instead of stone. But from the second century BC, the practice of carving on stone became prevalent. In this context, the examples of the caves of Amaravati and the Deccan are prominent. In Mathura, carving on sandstone gained popularity under the patronage of the Jains. Mathura art flourished under the patronage of the Kushans and some carved statues of Kushan kings have been discovered near Mathura. Compared to the art of Gandhara, the art of Mathura shows originality. The statues of Kushan kings were made according to the Mathura art.

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Gandhara Art:-

In the post-Mauryan period, Greek and Roman art entered India. The Greeks ruled the north-western border for about three hundred years. As a result, the artists of this region were inspired by foreign art and introduced a new art. This is known as Gandharan art. The main feature of this art was to create accurate portraits of people. Although the body structure of the Buddha statue is outwardly in imitation of the Greek style, it also has all the signs of a great man according to Indian ideology. Although Gandharan art began during the Shakas, it developed during the Kushanas. Numerous portraits of Buddha were created following the Gandharan art. The influence of Mahayana Buddhism can be seen in Gandharan art. The art of Mathura and Amaravati was indeed influenced by the Gandharan art, but this art could not penetrate the interior of India. But Gandharan art also achieved considerable success in countries like China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, etc.

Religious liberality: Position and harmony of many religions: -

After the Maurya period, foreign rulers like Menander, Kanishka and others adopted Buddhism. During this period, Buddhism underwent a transformation. During this period, Buddha was worshipped as a "god". The widespread practice of meditating Buddha and Bodhisattvas began during this period. During the Mauryan period, "Hinayana" was popular; but during this period, "Mahayana" became popular and strong. It is known from the precepts of Nagarjunakonda that the preachers of Buddhism during this period popularized Buddhism in various countries of East and West Asia including Kashmir, China, Tosali, Gandhara, Bengal, and Sinhala.

Jainism also spread considerably in the post-Mauryan period. Disagreements also arose regarding the religious teachings of Mahavira. The Jains were divided into two groups - Shwetambar and Digambara. During this period, the followers of Jainism gradually migrated from Magadha to Mathura, Ujjain and Saurashtra. Another group of them migrated to Kalinga and received the patronage of the Kalinga king Kharbela. The main centers of Jains in South India were Mysore and the Tamil region.

Brahmanism remained unchanged in the post-Mauryan period. From this time onwards, the features that began in Brahmanism later came to be known as Hinduism. The importance of Yajna - sacrifices and ceremonies gradually decreased in all religions. The ideal of establishing a personal relationship between God and devotee gradually became popular. The ideal of monotheism became popular among Shaivites and Vaishnavites. Later, the spread of Bhakti in Hinduism was an important development.

The most notable feature of the post-Mauryan era in terms of religion was the liberality regarding religion and harmony between different religions. No evidence of religious conflict was found in this era.

Excellence in the field of education:-

India was not backward in the field of education during this era either. The city of Taxila, located not far from Rawalpindi, was a major center of education and culture. Apart from different parts of India, many students from countries like China, Greece, Iran, Egypt used to come to Taxila to get education. Various subjects like Vedas, grammar, philosophy, medicine, literature and art were taught in Taxila University. The names of Panini, Katyayana, Patanjali, Jivaka, Chanakya, etc. are particularly noteworthy as one of the students and teachers of this university. Besides, Kanishka's capital, Purushpur or Peshawar, was one of the centers of Buddhist religious education.

Due to contact with different parts of the world, astrology and medicine made considerable progress in this era. In the field of medical science, the names of Charaka and Sushruta are particularly noteworthy. Herbal science also made incredible progress in this era. Special activity was also seen in the writing of religious scriptures in this era. Overall, the post-Mauryan era brought various revolutionary transformations in the field of Indian education and culture, which later served as a factor in the formation of Indian society.

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Discuss the art and craft of the Mauryan Era.

The art and craft of the Mauryan Era.

Introduction to the art of Mauryan Era

During the Mauryan era, not only political and administrative unity was established in India; along with this, a high quality of art was also introduced. The administrative skills of the Mauryan rulers helped in the expansion of trade and industry. The development of art and culture of the Mauryan era gave contemporary India a prestigious place.

In the words of historian K. M. Panikkar - ‘’The century and a half of Maurya rule witnessed a growth of civilisation, arts and culture which entitled India to rank among the greatest countries of the time.’’

The art of the Mauryan era can be learned from the works of Dharmashastra, Arthashastra, Batsayana’s Kama Sutra, Megasthenes and Fa Hien. Ashoka's pillars built in different places in India, the Bharat and Sanchi stupas, the Ajibak caves near Gaya, Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka's palaces - are excellent examples of the sculpture art of the Mauryan era. The stupas and pillars built by Ashoka bear witness to the skill and high taste in fine art. The pillars are built from a single solid stone. Many pillars have been discovered in places like Nandangad, Allahabad, Rummindei, Sarnath - etc. Their craftsmanship and smoothness still amaze European artists.

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The animal statues built on the top of the pillars of Sarnath are wonderful examples of sculpture art. Seeing the simplicity and naturalness of the animal statues on the top of the pillars, Smith has commented that such sculptures are extremely rare in any other country; in this there has been a wonderful combination of ideology and reality. Sir John Marshall, observing the craftsmanship of the Sarnath pillar, commented that its carving and composition were excellent and that no finer sculpture was created anywhere in the ancient world.

Many stupas and cave temples were built during the reign of Ashoka. The smoothness of the stupas is still considered a wonder. They are made of stone or brick. In some places, the stupas are surrounded by stone walls or railings. Each has one or two carved entrances. Ashoka built a total of 84,000 stupas in India and Afghanistan. According to Havell, the sculptural art of the stupas of Bharat and Sanchi shows a wonderful combination of non-Aryan and Aryan influences.

The cities and palaces built during the Mauryan era bear witness to advanced architectural art. Megasthenes' account shows that the cities and houses near the rivers and seas were made of wood. The houses in the interior were made of brick. Megasthenes was amazed by the wooden palaces of Chandragupta Maurya. There were many large arcades and pillars, and the floors were made of wood. Many have noticed Persian influence in Chandragupta Maurya's palaces. Ashoka's stone palace amazed Fa-Hien. But these palaces are now completely ruined. Only a few parts of them have been discovered, and within them are traces of a large room with a hundred pillars.

Chandragupta Maurya's Palace at Pataliputra and Ashoka's Palace:-

It is known from the account of Megasthenes - the palace of Chandragupta Maurya at Pataliputra during the Maurya era was rich in fine woodwork. This palace can be compared to the famous palace of Iran. It had many arcades and the floor was made of wood. Moreover, the gold and silver carvings on the pillars were truly impressive.

In addition, Emperor Ashoka built a palace which was made of huge and beautiful stones. The mirror-like smoothness of the stones dazzled Fa - Hien.

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Ashokan Pillar:-

One of the best examples of the art of Emperor Ashoka's period is the Ashoka Pillar. Ashoka was the first Indian emperor to cut stones and organize the construction of pillars. The pillars were built from a single solid stone. The stone pillar found at Sarnath was a magnificent example of the glory of Mauryan architecture. The lion statues on the top of the pillar inscription bear witness to the great skill of the artist. On the top of the pillar are statues of four animals - elephant, horse, bull and lion. Four lion statues are located on it. These are known as the ''Dharma Chakra''. This is a symbol of excellence, humanity, seriousness, glory, etc. After independence, the Government of India chose it as the national symbol.

Persian and Greek Influence on Mauryan Art:-

According to European historians and archaeologists such as John Marshall, Monsieur Sanhart, etc., Persian and Greek influences were followed in Ashoka's palace at Patliputra, the palace at Sarnath, the lion statue on the Sarnath pillar, etc. According to John Marshall, Persian and Greek artistic styles were completely absorbed by Indian artists.

But according to Indian archaeologists and architects such as K. M. Panikkar, Dr. Tarapada and architectural expert Shri Sarat Chandra, there was no Persian or Greek influence in Ashoka's architectural plans. A wonderful combination of Aryan and non-Aryan influences can be seen in it. Havell also supports this view. According to Indian archaeologists, instead of foreign art styles influencing Indian art styles, Indian art styles had a special influence in places like Central Asia, China, etc.

Influence of Buddhism on Mauryan Art:-

The art that developed in different parts of India for a long time from the time of Emperor Ashoka to the arrival of the Turks was influenced by Buddhism and Jainism. During the Mauryan rule, many Buddhist monasteries, stupas, stupa railings, arches, chaityas, etc. were built in different parts of India. The great stupa of Sanchi, its railings and arches built by Emperor Ashoka are the best examples of Buddhist architecture. Many anecdotes related to the life of Buddha and Buddhism are skillfully engraved on the railings of the Bharata Stupa and the railings and arches of the Sanchi Stupa. In fact, it can be said that Mauryan art was particularly influenced by Buddhism.

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Different opinion about the original habitation of the Aryans.

The presence of different opinions about the original habitation of the Aryans:-

There is no doubt that most of the present civilizations originated by the Aryans. Especially the current Indian civilization is the modern form of the sequence of evolution of the Aryan civilization. The Aryans are not Indian in origin. There is a difference of opinion in the historical circles about where their original habitation was. Mainly, this difference of opinion can be observed in three trends. Namely -

1. The Aryans are Indian.

2. The original habitation of the Aryans is the European region.

3. The original habitation of the Aryans is Central Asia, North Africa - etc. regions.

Therefore, to know about the original habitation of the Aryans, it is necessary to know about all the three trends and it is necessary to highlight the opinions for and against it.

First opinion: Aryans are Indians:-

There is no specific evidence or information about the arrival of Aryans in India in any recognized historical book. Even there is no clear mention anywhere that they entered India through the north-west Indian border. Rather, there is some historical evidence of the exit of Aryans from the north-west. According to a section of Indian historians, the Kashmir valley or Saptasindhu region in India was the original residence of the Aryans.

Arguments in favor of the view - Aryans are Indians -

1. There is no mention of any foreign territory, public life, etc. anywhere in the Vedic literature. If the Aryans were foreigners, there would definitely be some foreign details in the Vedas.

2. According to the information and descriptions of the Vedas, the arguments against declaring the Saptasindhu region as the original residence of the Aryans are not that strong.

3. The oldest literature in the world, the Vedas, is the creation of the Aryans. Its literary value is beyond debate. But if the Aryans were from outside of India, they could have created such literature. But there is no such precedent in world history.

4. Sanskrit is actually a transformation of the Aryan language. No other language in the world has such a direct and widespread influence of the Aryan language.

5. Indian civilization has many similarities with the lifestyle, spirituality, etc. mentioned in Vedic literature.

6. The strongest argument in favor of Aryan ideology is that Aryans did not mention any region other than Sapta Sindhu region as their homeland.

Arguments against: -

1. Aryans are Indians - there is no historical evidence in this regard.

2. The culture, language, etc. of Aryavarta and Deccan were completely different.

3. The Indus script has not yet been deciphered. Therefore, Aryan civilization had no connection with the oldest civilizations of India. On the other hand, the Aryans were one of the main culprits in the destruction of the Indus Valley Civilization - there is a lot of evidence in this regard.

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Second opinion: Aryans are Europeans: -

Arguments in favor: -

1. The people of the Aryan civilization have a lot of similarities with European civilization in terms of intelligence, physical structure, etc.

2. Most of the Indo-European languages are common in Europe and adjacent regions.

3. The type of climate, animals, etc. mentioned in the Vedas are very much related to European civilization.

4. European influence is observed in the traditional society, economy and agriculture of the Aryans in India.

Arguments against: -

However, the arguments that the scholars are making in this regard that the Aryans are Europeans - Indian historians and researchers have called all those arguments ridiculous. Those who say that the Aryans were Europeans could not clearly state where exactly in Europe the Aryans lived. Moreover, the attempt to reconcile the Aryans with European culture and lifestyle is not correct.

Third opinion: The Aryans are the people of Central Asia:-

The strongest and most accepted opinion about where the Aryans originally lived is that the Aryans were the inhabitants of the Kirghizia Terai region of Central Asia. Later, the Aryans divided into two groups, one group went to Greece and Italy through Asia Minor, and the other group arrived in India.

Finally, it can be said that the original residence of the Aryans was still a matter of debate in historical circles. Since the Aryans claimed in the Vedas that their homeland was the Sapta Sindhu region, and since there is no evidence of the existence of the Aryans in the ancient civilizations of India, this debate has arisen. However, modern historians generally consider the Kyrgyz Terai region of Central Asia to be the original home of the Aryans.

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Differences between Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic civilization.

Differences between Harappan and Vedic civilizations.

Differences between Indus Valley Civilization and Aryan civilization.

Differences between Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic civilization.

There are many differences between Harappan and Vedic civilizations. The differences are as follows -

1. In terms of expansion: -

Harappan civilization was mainly developed in the northwestern part of India and later its influence spread to the Gangetic plains and the south.

On the other hand, Aryan or Vedic civilization spread throughout India, centered around Aryavarta.

2. In terms of nature: -

Indus Valley Civilization was urban-centered, but Aryan civilization was rural-centered. The houses of the Aryans were made of bamboo and straw. On the other hand, the inhabitants of Harappan civilization lived in multi-storey houses made of burnt bricks. The wide highways, well-developed sewerage system and bathrooms of Harappa bear witness to a prosperous urban life. On the other hand, the Aryan civilization bears the identity of rural life in all areas - agriculture, administration, trade and production.

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3. In terms of the use of iron: -

Harappan civilization was a civilization of the Copper and Bronze Ages. The use of iron did not start in this era. On the other hand, the Vedic civilization was a civilization of the Iron Age. The Aryans introduced iron widely in agriculture and warfare.

4. In terms of the use of horses: -

The use of horses was unknown in the Harappan civilization. Horse skeletons have been discovered in only one case in the Harappan civilization and at the very top level. Therefore, horses were almost unknown in the Harappan civilization. On the other hand, horses were very important animals in the life of the Aryans. The Aryans used horses during wars and used horse-drawn chariots. In fact, horses were one of the tools of the Aryans in winning wars against non-Aryans.

5. In terms of writing: -

Writing was well-established in the Harappan civilization. That script is engraved on various seals. On the other hand, the writing system was not introduced in the Vedic civilization. The oldest literature written by the Aryans, the Vedas, was based on hearsay.

6. In terms of economy: -

Agriculture, industry and trade were the mainstays in the economy of Indus Valley Civilization. But the economy of the Vedic Aryans was based on agriculture and animal husbandry. Which makes the difference between urban and rural civilizations more clear.

7. In terms of religion: -

(a) There is a great difference in the worship system of both the civilizations. There is considerable doubt about the existence of temples in the Harappan civilization. But in the Vedic civilization, temples were an important part of the religious life of the Aryans.

(b) Idol worship was prevalent in the Harappan civilization, but idol worship was unknown in the Vedic culture. In the Vedic civilization, mainly the worship of fire, trees, etc. was prevalent. The Vedic Aryans were basically nature worshippers.

(d) The Harappans worshipped Shivalinga and the mother goddess. But in the Aryan civilization, linga worship was condemned.

(e) Female goddesses were predominant in the Harappan civilization; but in the Aryan civilization, male gods were predominant.

8. Mother centric and father centric :-

The society of Harappan was mother centric; but the Vedic society was father centric.

9. In terms of funeral methods: -

The Harappans buried the dead bodies. But the Vedic Aryans cremated the dead bodies.

10. In terms of self-defense and weapons: -

There is evidence of the use of self-defense weapons such as shields, helmets, etc. in the Harappan civilization. But no such self-defense weapons have been found in the Vedic civilization.

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11. In terms of pottery: -

There was a considerable difference between the two civilizations in terms of pottery. In the Harappan civilization, the color of the pottery was red-black. On the other hand, the color of the pottery of the Aryans was gray (Grey ware).

12. Caste division in terms of labor: -

Although there was an effect of class discrimination in Harappa, the Chaturashrama system was not prevalent in the life of the Harappans. On the other hand, the Chaturashrama system was prevalent in the social life of the Aryans.

13. In the case of maritime trade: -

The influence of maritime trade can be seen in the Harappan civilization. The people of Sindh used to trade with the countries of West Asia by sea. But the trade of the Aryans was limited to the coastline.

14. Cow as wealth: -

There is ample mention that the cow was the acceptable wealth in the Vedic culture. But there is no such mention in the Harappan culture.

There is no doubt that there were considerable differences between the Indus Valley and Vedic civilizations in various respects. The Harappan civilization was of a fairly advanced and standard; in comparison, the Aryan civilization was backward.

That is why many historians have called the Aryans a barbarian race. Dr. R.S. Sharma has identified the Aryans as city destroyers. Although the idea that the Aryans were barbarians is not entirely correct. The reason why the Aryans did not initially develop a civic life was because they preferred pastoralism and therefore did not stay in one place for long. The Aryans played a major role in the development of later Indian culture. However, although there were considerable differences between the two civilizations, the contribution of both cultures to the development of Indian civilization was considerable.

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Nandan Dutta

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Discuss the Mauryan administration. Did Asoka bring about any major changes?

Examine the Mauryan administration under Chandragupta Maurya. Did Asoka bring about any major changes?

Mauryan administration

Ashoka's system of government: Changes in the system of government:-

Discuss Ashoka's ''Dhamma''.

Was his ''Dhamma'' related to Buddhism? Give reasons for your answer.

What steps did Ashoka take to spread religion?

Ashoka's ''Dhamma'' :-

Historical statement on whether Ashoka’s religion was Buddhism or not:-

Ashoka's steps for preaching religion:-

Place of Ashoka in Indian History and his Contributions.

Ashoka's place in world history.

The cultural excellence of the post-Mauryan era.

Cultural excellence of the post-Mauryan era:-

Discuss the art and craft of the Mauryan Era.

The art and craft of the Mauryan Era.

Different opinion about the original habitation of the Aryans.

Different opinion about the original habitation of the Aryans.

Differences between Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic civilization.

Differences between Harappan and Vedic civilizations.

Differences between Indus Valley Civilization and Aryan civilization.

Differences between Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic civilization.

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