Nandan Dutta: January 2022

Discuss the principles of the Vienna Conference 1815.

Policies adopted at the Vienna Conference 1815 : -

After the final fall of Napoleon, the victorious states met at a conference in Vienna, the capital of Austria, in November 1814. The conference lasted until June 1815. The conference was attended by various European powers, but the main role was played by the four victorious states - Austria, Russia, Prussia and England. These four states were collectively called the Big Four. The major political driving force in Europe at that time was controlled by these four states. The main purpose of the organizers of this conference was to protect Europe from the aggressive policy of France in the future. Among the leaders attending the conference were Francis I, King of Austria, Frederick William III, King of Prussia, and Alexander I, Tsar of Russia. However, the main moderator and policy maker of the conference was the Prime Minister of Austria Prince Maternich.

The Vienna Conference adopted three principles. These three principles were -

(1) Principles of fair rights,

(2) Compensation policy and

(3) Power Equality Principle.

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(1) Principles of fair rights: -

The main objective of the fair rights policy was to bring France and Europe back to the pre-revolutionary political system. Talleyrand proposed this policy. Maternich, a supporter of the former monarchy, reactionary and anti-revolutionary, accepted the proposal and declared all the measures taken by Napoleon after the revolution to be invalid. It was announced that all the dynastic kings of the pre-Napoleonic era who had been deposed by Napoleon would be given back their thrones. According to this principle, the old dynasties of Europe regained their old political rights. Such as -

(i) Applying this policy, the political power of France was handed over to the former Bourbon dynasty and Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, was enthroned in France.

(ii) The Orange Dynasty was restored to the throne of Holland.

(iii) The rights of the Savoy family are re-established in Sardinia -Piedmont.

(iv) The pope was given back his kingdom of central Italy.

(v) The dominance of Austria was established in Northern Italy and Germany.

(vi) In Sicily and Naples, disqualification is granted to Ferdinand.

(vii) Part of Saxony is given to Prussia - etc.

However, the principle of fair rights had not been implemented in all cases. The political distinctions of Venice and Genoa, for example, were destroyed.

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(2) Compensation Policy: -

Many European states during Napoleon's reign; Sweden, England, Prussia, Russia and Austria were particularly affected. The main purpose of the compensation policy was to collect compensation from France in order to compensate all these affected countries and to adopt the policy of sharing some parts of the various states of Europe among themselves. According to this policy -

(i) Compensation of 70 crore francs was demanded from France.

(ii) The valuables which Napoleon brought to France from different countries were to be returned.

(iii) Finland, parts of Poland and Besarbia were given to Russia.

(iv) Half of Saxony, part of Westphalia, part of Poland, Danzig and Thorne - were given to Prussia.

(v) Holland's rights were established in Belgium.

(vi) Austria gained the rights over Lombardy and Venice.

(vii) England gained the trusteeship of Heligoland, Malta and Ionian Islands.

(viii) England's dominion over Mauritius, Sinhala, Trinidad, etc. was also established.

(ix) It was given to Sweden, separating Norway from Denmark. Etc.

(3) Principle of balance of power: -

The policy of equilibrium was carried back to the pre-revolutionary state so that the European powers could not engage in force again. The purpose of the balance of power policy was to destroy the power of France. Various steps were taken to implement the balance of power policy; Such as -

(i) The French army was disbanded.

(ii) Allied forces were deployed in France for five years.

(iii) Allied encirclement was created around France to prevent France from re-emerging or invading European states.

(iv) The Orange dynasty was strengthened by annexing Belgium to Holland.

(vi) Sardinia - Piedmont was given to Genoa to build a strong state on the southwestern border of France.

(vi) The rights of Prussia were established in North-West Germany.

(vii) Austrian dominance was established in southern Germany and northern Italy.

In conclusion, the policies adopted at the Vienna Conference are not beyond criticism. The main leaders of the Vienna Conference, especially the Maternich, were extremely reactionary and conservative. The sole purpose of all the policies of the Vienna Conference was to bring Europe back to its pre-revolutionary state and to re-establish the monarchy. In fact, the Vienna Conference made Europe backward rather than progressive.

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How much was the Treaty of Versailles responsible for World War II?

How far was the treaty of Versailles responsible for the Second World War?

The Treaty of Versailles was one of the most controversial treaties among the international treaties. The main allegation against it is that the Treaty of Versailles was indirectly responsible for World War II. Historians have called it a forced peace or ‘’A dictated peace’’. The discriminatory treatment of the German nation by this treaty indirectly gave rise to World War II. Historian Ryker commented - No great nation like Germany can submit indifferently to discrimination in the matter of armament and other things. In fact, the main purpose of the Treaty of Versailles was to make Germany irrelevant in international politics by weakening Germany politically and economically. The hatred and animosity towards the German nation that was aroused by this treaty was reflected in the events that followed Hitler's rise.

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1. Lack of political foresight on the part of the framers of the Treaty of Versailles. Long before the Treaty of Versailles was signed, the European leadership had a hostile attitude towards Germany. As a result, they did not show any courtesy to the defeated Germany during the treaty. Germany had no role in implementing the treaty. This political short-sightedness turned the Treaty of Versailles into a biased treaty.

2. Disrespectful treatment for Germany: - The Treaty of Versailles was based on two principles - (a) taking punitive action against Germany solely responsible for the war and (b) ensuring that Germany does not take any offensive role in the future. In the light of these two principles, all the terms of the treaty were intended to cripple Germany. This vindictive attitude and abusive behavior infuriated the German nation. Only with the rise of Hitler did that anger manifest itself.

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3. The burden of unjust and unreasonable compensation on Germany: - All the conditions imposed on Germany in the Treaty of Versailles were unethical and unreasonable. Although Germany suffered heavy losses in the war, the huge amount of compensation imposed on it - was in no way possible for Germany to pay. The framers of the treaty rejected all kinds of international principles and ethics while implementing the treaty.

4. Impact of economic and trade conditions: - All its rich territories were taken away from Germany. Germany was also denied any rights over various minerals. Germany's main industrialized fertilizer region was taken away. Most of Germany's territories and colonies were taken away and brought under Allied rule. It was then very natural that those harsh and coercive conditions should lead to the reunification of the German nation and a spirit of revenge against the European powers.

5. Discrimination against Germany in the policy of European restructuring: - Although Europe was reorganized after the First World War in the Treaty of Versailles, there was severe discrimination against Germany. Many parts of Germany were annexed by Poland and Czechoslovakia. This coercive attachment later gave rise to many international problems.

6. Inequality in Establishing the Nation's Right to Self-Determination: - In the Treaty of Versailles, the US President spoke of the nation's self-determination. But this ideal did not apply to Germany. The self-determination of the German nation was completely neglected. The treaty severely undermined Germany's sovereignty. As a result, it was not uncommon for the German nation to reunite and demand self-determination later on in the question of self-determination.

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7. Impact of Military Conditions: - In accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, all European countries adopted a policy of reducing arms. But the victorious powers never lost their strength. But this policy was strictly applied to Germany. German troops and naval forces were disbanded, and Allied forces were deployed in Germany. This discriminatory policy could not last long. As a result, with the rise of Hitler, Germany violated the Treaty of Versailles in 1936.

8. Unsuccessful attempts to subdue the German nation: - The huge sums of compensation imposed on Germany could not be paid by Germany and on the one hand; Similarly, it was not possible for the victorious forces to realize it. Although Allied forces were deployed in various parts of Germany, including the Rhine, it did not pose a major obstacle to Germany's recovery.

9. Polish and Belgian policy hurts Germany's ethnic dignity: - The terms of the treaty made neighboring Belgium stronger than Germany. The various prosperous regions of Germany were annexed to Poland. In addition, the framers of the treaty damaged the dignity of the German nation by building a "Polish corridor" through Germany. The Germans, believing in their own theory of ethnic superiority, therefore quickly sought to establish themselves. The result was World War II.

10. The British and French policy of appeasement: - Within a decade after the treaty Hitler's rise, Britain and France began to appease the Germans for political gain. As a result, Germany stopped paying compensation in 1932, but no action was taken against it. Then, in 1936, all the terms of the treaty were revoked from the Rhine region. In 1936, Hitler occupied Austria. Thus the appeasement policy of Britain and France encouraged Germany to play an irresistible role.

In conclusion, although the terms of the treaty temporarily weakened Germany, it was not possible to permanently subdue it. Because on the one hand there was the belief in the ethnic superiority of the German nation and on the other hand there was the rise of Hitler. Under the influence of these two, the latent possibility of retaliation by Germany came to the fore within the next decade. The ultimate manifestation of this was Hitler's invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II.

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Discuss the various terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Various terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 June 1919 between the victorious Allies and the defeated Germany. One of the most controversial treaties in international history was the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles was criticized as one of the most responsible causes of World War II. The reasons for the controversy over the Treaty of Versailles were rooted in its terms. However, the Treaty of Versailles was especially important in establishing peace in the troubled Europe and in rebuilding Europe. The Treaty of Versailles had different terms -

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1. Terms for the Reconstruction of Europe: -

(i) Alsas and Lorraine were extradited to France.

(ii) Monserrat, Malmedi and Eupen - handed over to Belgium.

(iii) The Schleswig region was given to Denmark.

(iv) The ports of Danzig and Mesel were seized from Germany and opened for public use.

(v) France's possession of the mining-rich territories of Germany was established for 15 years.

(vi) The German colonies in Asia and Africa were divided among the victorious powers.

(vii) International control over the Rhine, Danube and other rivers of Germany was established.

(viii) The "Polish Corridor" was built through Germany.

(ix) A security fence was erected in the area adjacent to France in West Germany in the interests of French security.

(x) Poland is declared an independent state.

(xi) All political rights of Germany are taken away in the international arena.

(xii) The North Schleswig is annexed to Denmark and the South Schleswig to Germany by referendum.

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2. Different economic conditions: -

(i) Germany alone was blamed for the war and was burdened with huge sums of money. The amount of this compensation was about 600 million pounds.

(ii) France's right to the coal-rich region of Germany was established for 15 years.

(iii) Money and resources were collected from Germany in various ways through the formation of the "Compensation Commission".

(iv) The rights of France and England were established in the rich ports of Germany.

(v) Germany will be obliged to supply iron ore and other minerals to France, Italy and Luxembourg for 10 years.

(vi) Allied products are preferred to be sold in Germany.

(vi) Various important waterways of Germany were brought under international control.

(vii) Various German merchant ships were delivered to France.

(viii) Special trade rights of Germany were revoked in other countries.

3. Military Terms: -

(i) The main purpose of the military terms of the Treaty of Versailles was to weaken German military power.

(ii) The German army was disbanded.

(iii) Germany was allowed to have one lakh volunteers and these volunteer forces can be used only for maintaining internal peace and order.

(iv) The use of German military aircraft was prohibited.

(v) The number of German fleets was greatly reduced.

(vi) The forts of Haligoland were destroyed.

(vi) German troops are withdrawn from the eastern part of the Rhine.

(vii) Kaiser William II and all German generals were dismissed.

(viii) An Allied force is deployed in Germany at German expense to comply with the terms of the treaty.

4. Legal Conditions: Article 213 of the Treaty of Versailles provides for the punishment of war criminals. According to this section, Kaiser William II and other generals were directly responsible for the war. But when Kaiser took shelter in Holland, he could no longer be tried. The Versailles Treaty also includes provisions relating to various UN laws.

Finally, scholars of international relations call the Treaty of Versailles a coercive treaty. In fact, defeated Germany had no choice but to accept all the terms of the treaty. A vindictive attitude towards Germany can be observed among the framers of the terms of the treaty. One of the causes of World War II was rooted in this attempt to cripple Germany.

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Discuss the outcome of the First World War.

Discuss the impact / importance of the First World War.

Outcome of the First World War: -

World War I would be less than a war. Judging by the scale of the war, the participation of different states, the use of lethal weapons, its influence in international politics, etc., it can be said to be more than just a war. In fact, the political character of the whole world changed during the First World War. It was basically a transformative revolution. The results of the First World War are as follows: -

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1. Loss of life and other losses: - This war caused far more casualties than any other war before the First World War. About 2.6 million soldiers were killed and about 6 million wounded. Many people died in the post-war period due to the social and economic conditions created by the war. The magnitude of the First World War was so great that many years after the end of the war, the situation in the West was volatile.

2. Financial recession and famine: - After the First World War, more or less financial recession occurred all over the world. After the First World War , Germany was so badly damaged by the Allies that Germany's economy collapsed. The factory closes. Inflation takes a sharp turn. Prices of essential commodities rise at an unusual rate. Thus, after the First World War, man-made famines broke out in various countries of Europe.

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3. Major changes in the balance of power: - After the First World War, there was a huge change in the balance of power in international politics. The dominance of the former dominating forces was destroyed. Germany, France - the influence of these states were completely destroyed. Different states are reorganized and many new states are born. As a result, the map of Europe underwent a major overhaul. Japan and America made their debut in international politics.

4. Impact on Germany: - After the First World War, the Allies blamed Germany alone for the war and imposed heavy burdens on it. Vindictive attitude towards Germany led to the complete destruction of its economy and military. The dominant territories of the conquered states were established over the prosperous regions of Germany. Attempts were made to cripple him by snatching all German colonies and destroying military power.

5. Establishment of Nationalist Principles: - Nationalism spread in Europe after the First World War. Four new states - Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were created from Russia. . Poland was reorganized. Slavic Yugoslavia emerges as a new state. Alsace and Lorraine were extradited to France. Sledwig was extradited to Denmark. In this way the nationalist aspirations of different nations were fulfilled in the European states.

6. Expansion of US and Russian Dominance in International Politics: - The pre-war international political regimes suffered extensive destruction and loss. As a result, their dominance in Europe and world politics was destroyed. Leading these powers were England and France. In this situation, the United States and Russia emerged as regulators of international politics.

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7. Impact on Russia: - Russia joined and was defeated in the First World War. Protests against Russia's authoritarian Tsarist regime began in 1905. As a result, after the defeat in World War I, the protests intensified, and in 1917 the Russian Revolution ended the long 300-year Tsarist rule. Then a bourgeois government was established in Russia and then that bourgeois rule came to an end and communism was established.

8. Increasing the political consciousness of the working class: - Political awareness among the working class of Europe increased during and after the First World War. Various labor organizations were born and the labor movement was started in the interest of the workers. When a communist government was established in Russia, it was in favor of the workers. The state directors were compelled to formulate rules in favor of the interests of the workers.

9. Changes in the status of women: - After the First World War, the status of women around the world changed. Throughout Europe, women are recognized for their work, their social status was established, their participation in the economic sphere was increased, women's participation in the office- industry and agricultural production was recognized and women's freedom was promoted.

10. Treaty of Versailles: Birth of the prospect of World War II: The Treaty of Versailles seeks to cripple Germany economically, militarily, and socially by blaming it solely for the war. The framers of the Treaty of Versailles, due to their lack of political foresight, laid the groundwork for the possibility of a second world war. As a result, it was not possible for Germany to accept the derogatory terms of the agreement for a long time, and soon their dissatisfied nationalism came to the fore.

In conclusion, the Treaty of Versailles did not make it possible for a large power like Germany to be weakened forever. The way in which Germany's nationalist status was tarnished could not be accepted by a powerful state like Germany. The terms of the Treaty of Versailles were also not morally justifiable. As a result, there is no doubt that the treaty contained the possibility of the second world war.

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Discuss Germany's responsibility for World War I.

Discuss how much Germany was responsible for the First World War.

Germany's responsibility for the First World War : -

On the eve of the First World War, the Western powers were divided into two main camps. On one side was the trilateral treaty of Germany, Austria and Italy and on the other side was the trilateral alliance of England, France and Russia. The rivalry between these two opposing alliances was one of the most important causes of the First World War. But among them the historic Fisher, Lord Oxford, and others have sharply criticized Germany's role in World War I. There are opposite views too. Barnes, Gooch, Jacqueline and others do not blame Germany for the First World War.

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1. Adoption of Weltpolitik Policy : - When Kaiser William II adopted Weltpolitik , it caused a strong reaction in international politics. Kaiser's policy was "Either whole or nothing" - this extreme reactionary policy led Europe's major powers to unite against Germany and set the stage for World War I.

2. Abandonment of the Satiation policy pursued by Bismarck: - Bismarck had earlier adopted the policy of Satiation or complacency in international politics. Bismarck's policy was to join other imperialist states and adopt a colonial policy. But when Kaiser William abandoned this policy and adopted an extremely reactionary policy, international politics moved towards World War .

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3. Austria appeasement by Kaiser: - Kaiser's annoyance to the Tsar is due to the adoption of Austria appeasement policy without regard to the Reinsurance Agreement signed with Russia. In addition, the situation became more complicated when Kaiser imposed strict conditions on Russia's trade. On the other hand, resistance against Austria in the Balkans was inevitable for Russia. In this situation, the Tsar thought that the real purpose of Germany was to break the Franco-Russian Alliance.

4. Anti-British attitude: - Germany has been adopting a strong anti-British attitude since the adoption of Weltpolitik policy. Added to this is the attempt to stay ahead of Britain in naval power. Germany's increase in naval power is seen as a serious threat to Britain's security. As a result, Britain was forced to form an alliance.

5. Sliffen plan: - Long before the formation of the opposing power alliance, the German general Sliffen made a plan. The plan calls for an attack on France and the disarmament of Russia as a precautionary measure. Kaiser William finally applied this policy in 1914. The Allies were forced to take action against this plan.

6. Pan-Germanism: - The proud Germans always tried to dominate the world. They considered the German Teutonic race to be the best race. To prove this superiority, they adopted an extremely reactionary policy, seeking to dominate the whole world. It was Kaiser's policy that forced the Allies to fight.

7. Kaiser's Colonial Policy: - Kaiser's aggressive colonial policy persuaded Britain and France to go to war. Britain was in favor of avoiding war, despite the formation of rival powers. But Kaiser ignored the "Anglo-German alliance proposal" proposed by England. With the support of the Buyers, the opposition to the Allies in the Moroccan crisis, the Berlin-Baghdad railway plan, the aggressive military and naval build-up, Kaiser single-handedly called for World War I.

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However, historians have argued that Germany was not solely responsible for World War I. Such as -

First, Germany cannot be blamed for the political instability in the Balkans. Because, in this case, Austria alone creates the situation of war by imposing the responsibility on Serbia.

Second, Modern historians believe that all European states were more or less responsible for the First World War. All the European states were equally to blame for the formation of alliances, the stockpiling of armaments, and the adoption of reciprocal policies.

Third, Austria was by no means under German control. Therefore, Germany cannot be blamed for the Balkan crisis and Serbia.

Fourth, as Germany increased its naval power, Britain also sought to destroy Germany at any cost in the name of self-defense.

Fifth, the German historian Wolfgang Haig thinks that European powers, such as Britain, France, and Russia, were determined to pursue their vested interests in the international arena. Therefore, it is not reasonable to blame Germany alone.

Sixth, the American historian John Faye, in his book "Origins of the First World War", said that Germany was in danger when the Allies formed . At this time, the Allies could not compete in the arms race and solve the problem through mutual negotiations. But the Allies did not.

In conclusion, Germany was not solely responsible for World War I. The rivalry between the European powers, the arms race, the colonial vested interests, the fierce nationalist character - all these things create an unprecedented environment in which the First World War could not be avoided.

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Discuss the causes of the First World War.

Reasons for the First World War: -

Although apparent peace prevailed in world politics for the past few decades, especially between 1871 and 1914, on the eve of the First World War, a number of events prepared the ground for the First World War . That is why this period is called the "Age of Armed Peace". Multiple causes for the First World War - such as different treaties, different alliances, reactionary policies - make conflict inevitable. Various events that took place on the eve of the First World War are also responsible for this. The various causes of the First World War were -

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1. Extremist nationalism: - For various reasons, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the European imperialist powers began to claim themselves as the best and adopted various reactionary policies to establish that claim. This fierce and narrow nationalism can be seen in almost every country in Europe, even in Russia, Japan, etc. Thus hatred and enmity towards each other and racial animosity form the background of the world war.

2. Dissatisfied Nationalism: - The French Revolution gave birth to three new ideals - equality, fraternity and independence. With the spread of this new ideology came the spread of nationalism in every nation. But the Vienna Conference became an obstacle to the spread of this new ideology. As a result, the sense of nationalism and desire for independence of different nations remained unsatisfied. This dissatisfied nationalism manifested itself on the eve of the First World War.

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3. Mutual Opposition Coalition: - Mutual power alliance formed on the eve of the First World War was one of the reasons for the First World War. The forces of the whole world were divided into two, mainly through two opposing camps.

(A) Triple Alliance. The alliance was formed between Germany, Austria and Italy at the initiative of German Prime Minister Bismarck. The main purpose of this alliance was to keep France down.

(B) The second alliance was Triple Entente . England, France and Russia formed that alliance . This alliance was formed as an opponent of the Triple Alliance .

These two alliances make the First World War inevitable.

4. Balkan nationalism: - During the rule of the Ottoman Turks in the Balkan region of Eastern Europe, various nations of the Balkan region became eager for independence. The Treaty of Berlin forcibly annexed the province of Bosnia to Austria. But the Bosnian ethnic Serb wanted to join Serbia. In protest, a fierce nationalist movement against Austria began in Bosnia.

5. Military competition: - On the eve of the First World War, almost every country in Europe turned into an arms factory. Military education is made compulsory in every country. The majority share of the national income is spent on weapons. It creates a atmosphere of fear when each country builds more weapons . This fear has made the European powers more and more involved in the arms race.

6. Economic Competition: - At the very beginning of the twentieth century, Britain realized that Germany was far ahead of Britain in terms of industry and commerce. As a result, economic competition between Britain and Germany intensified. Britain's interests in the North Sea and the English Channel could be jeopardized by the rapid growth of Germany's naval power. As a result, the dispute between the two countries escalated.

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7. The Role of German Imperialism: - In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Germany realized that France and Britain had established rights over all the important colonies of the world. As a result, France and Britain became determined to resist Germany if Germany wanted to spread imperialism by adopting Welt political policy, and the formation of an opposition alliance began.

8. Commercial and Colonial Conflict: - The commercial and colonial conflict between the European powers started long before the First World War. At the root of this conflict were market occupation, expansion of trade and expansion of colonial domination. Even the industrialized nations engaged in colonial competition for cheap raw materials. In this situation, the conflict between England, France, Russia with Germany and Italy became inevitable.

9. Role of kaiser William II : - William II was the architect of the whole of Europe which became an arms factory. William II effectively used the population of about 56 million Germans to increase his military might. The alliance with Austria led to an unexpected increase in German military power. On the other hand, he created a war situation in Europe by making the navy much stronger than before. He also repeatedly rejected Britain's offer of disarmament for peace.

10. Role of Rumors and Newspapers: - News spread by some rumors and newspapers on the eve of the First World War is indirectly responsible for the war. Various false, distorted and provocative news created an atmosphere of mutual intolerance in Europe. This kind of news after the assassination of Serajevo makes the situation favorable for war.

Direct cause: Sergeevo assassination: -

Prince Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophia were on a visit to Bosnia when they were killed by a Bosnian revolutionary student in the town of Serajevo on 28 June 1914. Austria sent an ultimatum blaming Serbia for the incident. But Serbia refuses to comply with any demands that its sovereignty be compromised, and offers to negotiate. But already Austria invaded the Serbian capital Belgrade on 28 July. With this attack, various forces took part in the war by participating in each other's allied camps. As a result, the world war started.

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Discuss the reasons for Napoleon's fall.

Causes for the fall of Napoleon: -

Starting his career as an ordinary soldier, Napoleon soon became the fortune teller of the whole of Europe. But his political career came to an end in 1815 when he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. But long before the Battle of Waterloo, various events led to the fall of Napoleon. The seeds of his downfall were hidden in Napoleon's regime and state organization. The reasons for Napoleon's downfall can be discussed in different ways.

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1. Boundless ambition and self-confidence: - Napoleon wanted to establish his dominance over the whole of Europe. He was deeply attracted to the triumphant policies of the Greek emperor Alexander and the Roman emperor Julius Caesar. His imperialist policies paved the way for his downfall, despite his extraordinary achievements in the field of governance . He did not realize that it was not possible for France to establish dominance over the whole of Europe within its limited powers.

2. Dictatorship: - Between 1899 and 1814, Napoleon's role changed drastically. In 1899, Napoleon was the defender of the revolution, one of the leaders in reforming and establishing order. But in 1814 Napoleon became the object of Europe's hatred. Napoleon's authoritarian regime was responsible for this. David Thomson likens Napoleon's regime to a "police state." With the introduction of the welfare state, Napoleon became one of the most popular figures in Europe. But later his dictatorship and coercive policy tarnished his popularity.

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3. Military Failure: - With advanced military power and tactics, Napoleon succeeded in dominating one European state after another. Apart from England, no other European state has been able to build a resistance against Napoleon. But just as Napoleon's tactics began to be comprehended by the other forces, so did the anti-Napoleonic forces unite and ensure Napoleon's downfall.

4. Reaction to Peninsular and Russian War Defeat: - Then Napoleon lost his invincible image in the Peninsular and Russian War. Protests against Napoleon began in Europe and France. Many of Napoleon's employees also joined the protest. Even his brother Joseph Bonaparte conspired against Napoleon. Thus an anti-Napoleon plot was hatched in France.

5. Frankfurt Proposal: - One of the fatal mistakes of Napoleon's political life is to ignore the Frankfurt Proposal. After the defeat at the Battle of Leipzig, the victorious powers presented the Frankfurt proposal to Napoleon. This proposal was honorable enough for Napoleon. He was only asked to relinquish control over Belgium and the Netherlands. But by rejecting this honorable offer, Napoleon showed extreme short-sightedness.

6. Self-contradiction and declining popularity: - Ascending the French throne, he became known as the liberator and spread nationalism throughout Europe. But soon the people of France l realized the real nature of Napoleon's rule. They understand that there was no significant difference between the French rule before the revolution and the rule of Napoleon. Unlimited taxes, forced military service, imperialist policies, the continental system - these were the things that annoyed the French.

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7. Allied Alliance - Formation: - In European politics, the Fourth Alliance was formed against France under the leadership of England. The main reason for Napoleon's victory in the earlier wars was that the anti-Napoleonic forces were not united. But after the formation of the fourth power alliance, Napoleon's French forces were very weak in front of their combined strength. This fourth power alliance eventually hastened the fall of Napoleon.

8. Spanish Wounds: - Napoleon himself called the Spanish policy "Spanish Wounds". After his conquest of Spain, he succeeded his brother Joseph Bonaparte to the Spanish throne. But this was Napoleon's fatal mistake. As a result of Napoleon's policy, the entire Spanish nation was united against Napoleon. This is the first time Napoleon has had to wage war against an entire nation. Napoleon's 500,000 troops were killed in the war with Spain.

9. Failure of the Russian campaign: - On the one hand, the foundation of Napoleon's empire was weak. Opposition to Napoleon's policy was growing in France. On the other hand, it was a fatal mistake of Napoleon to invade Russia leaving England undefeated. Due to the severe winter, the guerrilla tactics of the Russian forces and the terracotta policy, etc., Napoleon's forces failed miserably. This defeat led to revolts against Napoleon throughout Europe.

10. Continental system and its failure: - Napoleon took continental system against England to weaken England's dominance in Europe and destroy England economically. To make this arrangement work, Napoleon had to conquer one neutral state after another and adopt a fierce reactionary policy. But with a formidable naval power, strong England easily broke Napoleon's continental blockade. The hatred of Napoleon spread throughout Europe, and this hatred helped the anti-Napoleonic forces to unite.

In conclusion, no one of the factors were particularly responsible for Napoleon's downfall. The various factors mentioned together accelerated the fall of Napoleon.

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Discuss Napoleon's continental system. Discuss the reasons for the failure of the continental system.

Napoleon's continental system: -

Britain was more advanced in naval power than France. But for commercial and imperialist interests, it was necessary to influence the sea and establish rights over Britain. But it was not possible for France at that time to subdue the British in naval power. It was virtually impossible for France to invade England by crossing the English Channel. So Napoleon took a continental blockade against England. Napoleon's main objective was to keep England out of the mainstream of the European economy.

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Berlin Decree 1806: -

Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree in November 1806 with the aim of imposing economic blockade on England. The main points of this decree were -

(i) A naval blockade was declared on England.

(ii) Arrest orders were issued for British nationals from French occupied territories.

(iii) A ban is imposed on the entry of English ships into France or any of its occupied countries or any of France's allies.

(iv) The sale of English goods is also prohibited in all these regions.

Britain's Response: Order-in-Council (1807): -

In response to Napoleon's Berlin Decree, England declares the Order-in-Council. The main points were -

(i) All types of French products are prohibited in England and its allies.

(ii) England's naval blockade of France and its allies was declared.

(iii) Neutral states are given the right to trade conditionally with Britain.

(iv) If a neutral ship wants to sail to France or its allies, it must obtain the permission of England.

(v) Failure to comply with such conditions shall result in the confiscation of the goods and services of England by a neutral country.

Milan Decree (1807): -

In response to the Order-in-Council of England, Napoleon issued the Milan Decree in 1807. The main point of the directive was that if a neutral state obtained a license from England under the Order-in-Council, France would occupy that country and its ship as British property and France would consider that country and its ship as an enemy state.

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Warsaw decree: -

Napoleon was not satisfied with issuing Milan decree only. He then issued the Warsaw Decree in 1807. This was basically a later stage of the Milan Decree. It said that if a country or ship disobeyed the instructions of the Milan Decree, its goods would be confiscated and it would be burnt.

Fontainebleau Decree: -

He issued the Fontainebleau Decree in 1810 after the Warsaw Decree. The directive also upheld the order to burn the occupied English goods and set up a special court to try British or allied merchants who disobeyed French orders.

Licensing system: -

Despite adopting various rules and regulations, Napoleon's continental blockade system was not successful. Under those circumstances Napoleon realized that it was not possible to completely stop the import of goods from England. Napoleon then introduced the licensing system for merchants importing goods from England. Napoleon practically accepted that the continental blockade did not work, by introducing the licensing system.

Reasons for the failure of the continental system: -

The continental system imposed on England by Napoleon was completely destroyed. The reasons for this were: -

1. The coastline of Europe was long. England did not have the vast naval power to establish dominance along this vast coast.

2. England's naval power was very strong. With this powerful navy, England was able to easily maintain its dominance in the occupied territories and to counter the weak naval resistance of France.

3. There was a great demand for various commodities produced in England - such as textiles, sugar - etc. throughout England. So the ban on goods manufactured in England was not successful.

4. When Napoleon imposed a ban on English goods, various French allies began importing goods from England through smuggling. This multiplied their costs and made them disappointed with Napoleon.

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5. In the absence of a strong navy, France fails to carry out anti-England directives such as the Berlin Decree, the Milan Decree, etc. On the other hand, with a strong navy, England successfully enforced the Order-in-Council against France.

6. Britain was much more economically advanced than France. As a result of the Industrial Revolution, England became the owner of immense wealth. France, on the other hand, was a revolutionary country. Although economic conditions in France improved during Napoleon's reign, they were negligible compared to England.

7. Opposition did not come from outside France only. A group of French merchants and industrialists also strongly opposed Napoleon's blockade of the continent.

8. Napoleon imposed high tariffs on merchants, industrialists and merchandise in order to improve the military system and to enforce the continental blockade. As a result, they too became disappointed with Napoleon.

9. As a result of Napoleon's policy, the neutral countries were suffering severely in terms of trade and economy. So they began to have a hostile attitude towards Napoleon.

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Napoleon Bonaparte's internal reforms.

Code Napoleon.

Napoleon as a reformer.

Introduction: - After being appointed as a consul, Napoleon concentrated on internal reforms. The main aim of his reforms was to establish a strong political base in France by introducing a centralized system of government. Napoleon is regarded as one of the greatest benevolent rulers of the eighteenth century. His reforms had a profound effect on later France and the whole of Europe. David Thomson says - "His overall purpose was a systematic reconstruction of the legal, financial and administrative institutions of France".

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1. Administrative Reforms: - Napoleon took some measures to build a strong centralized system of government. The measures are -

(i) It is customary to appoint provincial administrators and district officers directly by the Consul.

(ii) Before the Revolution, France was divided into 83 departments or provinces. This arrangement is maintained.

(iii) Arrangements were made by the Consul to appoint all the employees of the various governors of the districts and provinces - prefect, sub-prefect, mayor.

(iv) Councils, though in force, are turned into advisory bodies.

(v) By reducing the power of the provinces and municipalities, the free power of the emperor is established there.

(vi) Law, foreign policy, defense - in all cases the monopoly of the emperor is established.

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2. Introduction of the Concordat: - The Napoleonic Code introduced the Concordat to resolve disputes between states and the Pope. This new religion reform law is called Concordat.

(i) France was divided into 50 priestly groups, with all previous arrangements broken, and the power of this group transferred to 10 archbishops.

(ii) The Bishop's authority over the clergy was established.

(iii) The Roman Catholic Church and religion are recognized by the state.

(iv) The church and its property are nationalized.

(v) The custom of appointing clergies by consul is prevalent.

(vi) Although Catholicism is recognized as the main religion, other religions are also recognized.

3. Introduction of Civil Code: Introduction of Law and Judiciary: - Introduction of Civil Code was one of the most significant of Napoleon's internal reforms. The Code was composed by four eminent lawyers and contained about 287 sections. Its various aspects were -

(i) The supreme right of the father is recognized in the family and the property of the family.

(ii) Husband's right to life and property of wife is recognized.

(iii) Divorce is recognized.

(iv) Penalties and rules of law are specified.

(v) Mobile courts are created to supplement the basic justice system.

(vi) Jury system is maintained in the judiciary.

(vii) Property rights are legalized.

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4. Various reforms in the field of education: - Napoleon's various reforms in the field of education were -

(i) Many primary and secondary schools were established.

(ii) One primary school is established in each commune.

(iii) Many technical schools are established.

(iv) 29 schools were established for military education.

(v) Normal school for teacher education is established.

(vi) 6 medical schools are established.

(vii) Multiple measures were taken to enrich the French language.

(viii) The University of France was established in 1608 AD for the expansion of higher education.

5. Economic Reforms: - The various economic reforms adopted by Napoleon were -

(i) The Bank of France was established for the purpose of centralizing the economic system.

(ii) All rights to print notes are vested in the Bank of France.

(iii) All rules of tax collection are centralized.

(iv) Arrangements are made for disbursement of loans from banks.

(v) Monetary policy is reformed.

(vi) The French treasury was enriched by collecting large sums of money from the conquered countries for compensation.

(vii) Arrangements were made for rehabilitation of the unemployed.

(viii) The Chamber of Commerce was reorganized in 1602 AD.

(ix) Trade expansion in North America.

(x) Assignment note was canceled.

(xi) Gold and silver coins were reintroduced.

(xii) Stock exchanges were formed and ports were reformed.

In conclusion, Napoleon's reforms, based on the basic tenets of Roman law, were adopted in France as well as in other European countries. The main purpose of the laws that Napoleon wrote as a politician was to improve the moral character and standard of living of the people and to establish a successful centralized administration. As a result, the common people, the middle class and the peasants became pro-Napoleon.

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Discusses the social causes of the French Revolution.

Social Causes of the French Revolution 1789

Introduction: -

The root cause of the French Revolution was rooted in social inequality. The medieval social system of France was divided into privileged and non-privileged. The French were divided into three main estates or classes, consisting of priests, aristocrats and other communities. The differences between them and the differences in the power of dignity and rights formed the background of the revolution. Historian Fischer blames social divisions for the revolution: "The monarchy was unable to solve the question of privacy and was not strong enough, in a word." , to overthrow the remains of feudalism ")

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The French were divided into three classes - First Estate, Second Estate, and Third Estate.

| 1 | First Estate : The clergy were the first class in French society. Less than 1 percent of the Mate population, or 120,000 clergies , belonged to the First Estate. One-tenth of the land of France was under their control. Despite having the power to pay taxes, they were exempted from taxes. Clergies in this category volunteered once a year. In addition to the religious tax of Tide, the income of the clergies , who depended on the financial property of the church to collect taxes from birth, death, marriage, etc., was good.

High class clergies and lower class clergies : - Clergies again had two divisions, aristocratic or high clergy and lower clergy . High clergies were born into aristocracy and were power-hungry and corrupt. And the lower clergies were neglected in the society as they belonged to the third community by birth. It is for this distinction between the clergy that the lower priests contribute to the French Revolution. This conflict between the two classes of clergies was one of the reasons for the early success of the French Revolution, "said Professor Salvemini." This dissension between the higher and lower clergy was one of the potent causes leading to the early victory of the Revolution

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| 2 | Second Estate : The second class in France refers to the elite community on the eve of the French Revolution. They numbered 350,000 (1789 AD), or one and a half percent of the total French population. One third of the French agricultural land was under their control. Although they had the power to pay taxes, the French government did not collect taxes from them. In addition, they got the right to collect various feudal taxes from the subjects. They dominated all places including administration, judiciary, revenue department, finance department. By enforcing constitutional acts, they own one-third of the village's collective property. These elites, divided into nine groups, persecuted the third estate community.

Types of aristocracy: - According to the antiquity of the French family, the honor of the aristocracy was changed. Although the kings of France could recognize anyone as an aristocrat for a pittance. Known as the Noble of the Robe elite, they numbered about 50,000. Bailey Stone referred to the conflict of the aristocracy as a supporting element of the French Revolution, saying that even in the 1780s, two classes of aristocracy were in conflict with the government and even engaged in reciprocal attacks. Goodwin blames the reactionary aspirations of the elite for the revolution . Goodwin said that the real cause of the French Revolution must be found in the reactionary aspirations of the elite.

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| 3 | Third Estate : Third Estate refers to all subclasses except the first and second class in French society before the French Revolution. Among them were the bourgeoisie or middle class, peasants, workers, merchants, businessmen, lawyers, teachers, Sankulet (proletariat). More than 97% of the French population was from the third community.

[i] The bourgeoisie: the bourgeoisie, or middle class, who had a place in French society after the clergy, the aristocracy. The word bourgeois literally meant middle-class citizens. Although they were far ahead of the clergies and aristocrats in terms of knowledge, intellect and money, they were far behind in terms of honor and dignity. As the country's industries, commerce, education, literature and research flourished with their help, so too did the clergies and the aristocracy derive much of their luxury from the revenue they gave. Although they deserved respect and dignity in the society as a whole, they did not get it and gave impetus to the French Revolution. In support of this view, the historian Ryker says that the French Revolution was a movement of the bourgeoisie demanding social equality ("... a movement for social equality by the bourgeoisie").

[ii] Farmers: The majority of the third estate was the farming community. Among the third class, the farmers belonging to different classes were about 75%. Most of the revenue had to be borne by the farmers. In return they were destined to suffer oppression and injustice. In addition to cultivating the land, the farmers were forced to work for the landlords . Even if the prices of basic necessities of life increased, the income of the farmers would not increase in that proportion. Although the production of crops is less due to natural calamities, the rate of revenue given to the farmers is not less. Although the independent peasants made a living by cultivating the land they had inherited, the condition of the sharecroppers and the landless peasants was deplorable. According to the historian Labruz, the French peasants of the eighteenth century were the most oppressed.

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[iii] Others: Among the others of the third community, the workers were engaged in factory work in the city. But their struggles for life were miserable because of low wages, job insecurity, or being unemployed for many years. The Sankulet or the proletariat were the uncanny creatures of society. Apart from this, artisans and small traders and doctors, scientists, lawyers and others were deprived of their due status in the society even though they brought financial prosperity by utilizing their knowledge.

Conclusion: The seeds of revolution were laid in the social structure of France consisting of the first, second and third communities. Although there were differences between the grievances and demands of the clergy, the aristocracy and the third class bourgeoisie and the peasants, they together fueled the revolution. The first, second, third class - the inequality of these three communities was the main cause of the revolution. Napoleon stated "Vanity made the Revolution, Liberty was only an excuse".

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Discuss the consequences of the Industrial Revolution.

Consequences of the Industrial Revolution: -

Influence / Effects of the Industrial Revolution .

The Industrial Revolution was a significant event in the history of modern Europe. Its influence was so far-reaching that it profoundly effected the history of the modern world. The mass production of goods in European countries as a result of the Industrial Revolution indirectly encouraged the spread of imperialism, the spread of capitalism, colonization, market domination around the world, and so on. Discussing history, it is seen that the countries which were industrialized were mostly involved in imperialist aggression. The most notable example of this is England. The first successful industrial revolution was organized in England and later England was involved in the spread of imperialism. The overall results of the Industrial Revolution are:

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1. Changes in the economic field: - Before the organization of the Industrial Revolution, the society and economy were mainly dependent on agriculture. But the situation of the Industrial Revolution, which began in the second half of the eighteenth century, brought about a profound change in the European economy. As the production of manufactured goods continues to grow at a rapid rate, the economy gradually becomes industrialized. These changes changed the economy as a whole.

2. The beginning of the decline of the village society: - Industrial factories needed a lot of cheap labor. On the other hand, income in rural agriculture was irregular and uncertain. But due to the massive increase in production in the industrial factories, a lot of labor was required there. So the rural people left the uncertain agriculture and started moving to the cities in the hope of getting employment as laborers. This led to the decline of rural society and economy.

3. Development of urban life: - Industries, factories - these were city-centric. As more and more villagers started leaving the village in droves to join the factories as laborers, the industries developed rapidly. As a result, the city's economy is strengthened and civic life flourishes.

4. The emergence of two new classes in society: - The emergence of two new classes in European societies through industrialization. One is the owner class and the other is the working class. The owner class invests capital in the industries and the working class maintains the trend of production in those factories. There were vast differences between the social and economic conditions of these two classes. On the one hand the owners had a vast property and social power and on the other hand the workers were the disenfranchised, deprived class.

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5. Exploited and oppressed working class : - Many people leave the village and join the factories of the city in the hope of work, but they face exploitation and oppression in the city and at work. In the first place, they were made to work harder and longer than necessary. They had to work in the factory for about 16 to 18 hours a day. Instead, they do not get paid fair wages. Medical treatment for workers, education for their children - these minimum provisions they had not provided . Even the necessities of life could not be procured on their meager and irregular salaries.

6. Emergence of Capitalist Economy: - As the rural economy collapses by industrialization, capitalism spreads in the European economy as its inevitable result. The owner class invests a lot of capital in the production of goods and makes a huge profit. Gradually this trend became dominant in the European economy. Gradually state policy was introduced in favor of capitalism.

7. Chief Regulator of Economy: Owner Class: - Investment of capital during the Industrial Revolution made the economy capital dependent. Since the control of capital was in the hands of the industrialists or the owner class, they gradually became the main regulators of the economy. They continue to influence government policy to facilitate the spread of capitalism.

8. Decrease of class power of Aristocrats, feudal lords and landlords :- Until the pre-industrial period , all the power of society was vested in the hands of aristocrats, feudal lords and landlords. But during the period of the Industrial Revolution, as capitalism spread, all power passed into the hands of the owners and industrialists, and the power of the above three classes was greatly diminished. The owner class became the main controller of the economy and the state apparatus was run in their interest.

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9. Emergence of a chaotic social situation: - On the one hand the owner class was busy trying to make a profit by exploiting the workers and on the other hand the condition of the workers became unsuitable for human life. So in European countries hostile relations are established between the owner and the working class. As a result of which workers' dissatisfaction, riots, etc. arise. But it is possible to control the working class easily as the state apparatus is in favor of the owner class.

10. Owner-labor conflict and the beginning of the movements : - The employer side was not willing to pay the fair dues of the workers at any cost. The workers were being exploited and oppressed day by day. In this situation, the only hope of the workers was state intervention. But since capitalism became the main controller of the state apparatus, the position of the state was against the workers. In this situation there was no other way open for the workers except fight for their rights .

11. Spread of Imperialism: - European countries started producing a lot of products at the time of the Industrial Revolution. Huge markets were needed to sell those products. In order to solve this problem, the European powers, along with other western countries, started advancing imperialism, especially towards the east. Its sole purpose was to capture the vast markets of the Orient. In order to capture this market, the rivalry between the imperialist powers started again. For example, the Anglo-French conflict centered on India and Bengal.

12. The colonies became the exporters of raw materials: - The colonial powers established their colonies in different countries like India, Africa, etc. in order to capture the market. In all those colonies, on the one hand, they destroyed their industries and small industries to sell their goods, and on the other hand, they turned those colonies into raw material exporting countries for their own interest .

In conclusion, the Industrial Revolution did not only effect European countries. From the above discussion it is clear that the Industrial Revolution effected the whole world. On the one hand, just as the social and economic changes took place in European countries, on the other hand, the Industrial Revolution changed the history of the whole world by encouraging imperialism.

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Discuss the principles of the Vienna Conference 1815.

Policies adopted at the Vienna Conference 1815 : -

How much was the Treaty of Versailles responsible for World War II?

How far was the treaty of Versailles responsible for the Second World War?

Discuss the various terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Various terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Discuss the outcome of the First World War.

Discuss the impact / importance of the First World War.

Outcome of the First World War: -

Discuss Germany's responsibility for World War I.

Discuss how much Germany was responsible for the First World War.

Germany's responsibility for the First World War : -

Discuss the causes of the First World War.

Reasons for the First World War: -

Direct cause: Sergeevo assassination: -

Discuss the reasons for Napoleon's fall.

Causes for the fall of Napoleon: -

Discuss Napoleon's continental system. Discuss the reasons for the failure of the continental system.

Napoleon's continental system: -

Berlin Decree 1806: -

Britain's Response: Order-in-Council (1807): -

Milan Decree (1807): -

Warsaw decree: -

Fontainebleau Decree: -

Reasons for the failure of the continental system: -

Napoleon Bonaparte's internal reforms.

Code Napoleon.

Napoleon as a reformer.

Discusses the social causes of the French Revolution.

Social Causes of the French Revolution 1789

Discuss the consequences of the Industrial Revolution.

Consequences of the Industrial Revolution: -

Influence / Effects of the Industrial Revolution .

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